tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13511906864033609252024-02-20T00:59:02.426-08:00Global Warming Made SimpleDan Pangburnhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07898549182266117774noreply@blogger.comBlogger1125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1351190686403360925.post-68079516735700209382013-05-12T21:29:00.000-07:002017-12-07T14:51:44.831-08:00<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Global Warming Made Simple </span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">(rev 12/7/15)</span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: red;">See also</span> </span>average global temperature assessment at <a href="http://globalclimatedrivers2.blogspot.com/" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">http://globalclimatedrivers2.blogspot.com</a><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Energy balance<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The only way that significant energy can arrive
at or leave the planet is by electromagnetic radiation. Energy which is
received by the planet is the part of the radiation from the sun that is not
reflected. The total energy being radiated from the planet is the sum of the
energy radiated between the clouds plus the energy radiated through the clouds
and from the clouds themselves.</span><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
Simple calculations in radiation heat transfer demonstrate
that much of the change in average global temperature that has been called
Global Warming can be accounted for by a small reduction of low altitude
clouds.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Generally accepted
knowledge:<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Clouds cover about 60% of the planet all the time<sup>1</sup>.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Average radiation from the sun at earth’s orbital
distance is fairly constant at about 1367 W/m<sup>2</sup>.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->About thirty percent of the energy from the sun is
reflected<sup>2</sup> by the planet (albedo plus specular reflection) and
therefore does not need to be radiated from the planet.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->The planet radiates energy over its spherical surface
which is four times its cross section area, which is the effective area that
receives (intersects) radiation energy from the sun.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->On average over a century or so, the average global
temperature does not change very much so the energy received by the planet from
the sun must average out to about the same as that radiated from the planet.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Clouds, because they consist of bits of liquid or solid
water, radiate energy according to their emissivity and the fourth power of
their absolute temperature.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Average emissivity, ε, of the surface is about 0.98.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->The average emissivity of clouds<sup>3</sup>, ε<sub>c</sub>,
is about 0.5.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->At average cloud altitude, air temperature, and thus
cloud temperature, declines with increasing altitude at a rate of 0.0065 °K/m.
(1962 US Standard Atmosphere)<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->Average
global temperature before global warming was about 287.4 °K.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">11.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->Average
global temperature increased about 0.74 °K during the 20<sup>th</sup> century
(the trend has been flat since before 2001).<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Change in cloud
reflectance<o:p></o:p></b></div>
Part of the radiation that comes from the sun is reflected;
most as albedo from clouds and a bit from land and some as specular reflection
from water. A small change in the area of cloud cover causes reflectance change
which produces an easily calculable change in average global absolute temperature,
T. T can be determined from:<o:p></o:p><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
T = ((1-a)*S/(4*ε1*σ))^0.25<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>°K <o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
Where:<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
a = planet average reflectance ≈ 0.3<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
S = Solar constant = 1367 W m<sup>-2</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">ε1</span> = over-all planet average emissivity including effects of
clouds and ghg = 0.612<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
σ = Stephan-Boltzmann constant = 5.6697E-8 W m<sup>-2</sup> K<sup>-4</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
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</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
From this we calculate that a decrease of planet average
reflectivity (as a result of fewer clouds) from 0.3 to the very slightly
reduced value of 0.2964 would result in an average global temperature increase
of 0.37 °K.<o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Change in cloud area <span style="font-size: xx-small;">(added 12/7/17)</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: #FAFAFA; font-size: 11.0pt;">The basic
equation relating solar heating to average earth temperature is<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: #FAFAFA; font-size: 11.0pt;">S*(1-a)=ε*σ*A*T<sup>4 </sup> (1)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: #FAFAFA; font-size: 11.0pt;">Where:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: #FAFAFA; font-size: 11.0pt;">a = albedo
= fc*rc+(1-fc)*rnc. ≈ 0.3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: #FAFAFA; font-size: 11.0pt;">Credible
values:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: #FAFAFA; font-size: 11.0pt;">fc = 0.62
= fraction of area covered by clouds<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: #FAFAFA; font-size: 11.0pt;">rc = 0.47
= average reflectivity of clouds<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: #FAFAFA; font-size: 11.0pt;">rnc = 0.03
= average reflectivity of area not covered by clouds<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: #FAFAFA; font-size: 11.0pt;">T=average
global temperature ≈ 288 K<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: #FAFAFA; font-size: 11.0pt;">albedo at
T:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: #FAFAFA; font-size: 11.0pt;">a = 0.62*0.47
+ (1-0.62)*0.03 = 0.3028 (OK) (2)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: #FAFAFA; font-size: 11.0pt;">Combine
this in (1) with T = 288<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: #FAFAFA; font-size: 11.0pt;">S*(1-(0.62*0.47
+ (1-0.62)*0.03)) = ε*σ*A*288 <sup>4
</sup> (3)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: #FAFAFA; font-size: 11.0pt;">Albedo at
T-0.5 =287.5<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: #FAFAFA; font-size: 11.0pt;">a1 =
(0.62*0.47)*(1+x) + (1-0.62)*0.03*(1-x) (4)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: #FAFAFA; font-size: 11.0pt;">Combine
this with (1) with T = 287.5<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: #FAFAFA; font-size: 11.0pt;">S*(1-((0.62*0.47)*(1+x)
+ (1-0.62)*0.03*(1-x) = ε*σ*A*287.5<sup>4
</sup> (5)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: #FAFAFA; font-size: 11.0pt;">Divide (5)
by (3) and solve for x<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: #FAFAFA; font-size: 11.0pt;">x =
0.017247 ≈ 1.72%<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Thus, all else equal, an increase in cloud cover of 1.72%
would result in an average global temperature decrease of 0.5 K <o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Change in cloud altitude.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
If the decline caused by greenhouse gases (mostly water
vapor) in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">effective</i> surface
emissivity is ignored and it is assumed that none of the radiation from the
surface under the clouds leaves the planet, the energy balance in equation form
is:<o:p></o:p><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
H = H<sub>nc</sub> + H<sub>c<o:p></o:p></sub></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
Where:<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
H = total energy received from the sun and thus radiated
from the planet.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
H<sub>nc</sub> = Energy radiated from the planet surface
(below the atmosphere) between clouds.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
H<sub>c</sub> = Energy radiated from clouds at average cloud
altitude.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
The only unknown in this energy balance is average cloud
temperature so it can be solved for. The Equation can be solved for average
cloud temperature before global warming and then for average cloud temperature
after the surface temperature increased 0.74 °K.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
H = 1367/4*(1-0.3) = 239.22 W/m<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
Then before global warming the energy radiated from between
clouds is:<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
H<sub>nc1</sub> = (1-0.6)*ε*σ*T<sub>s</sub><sup>4 </sup><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>= 0.4*0.98*5.6697x10<sup>-8</sup> * (287.4)<sup>4</sup>
= 151.63 W/m<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
And after global warming the energy radiated from between clouds
is:<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
H<sub>nc2</sub> = 0.4*0.98*5.6697x10<sup>-8</sup> *
(287.4+0.74)<sup>4</sup> = 153.2 W/m<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
Average cloud temperatures before and after the 20<sup>th</sup>
century warming can now be calculated:<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
Average cloud temperature before global warming:<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
239.22 = 151.63 + 0.6*ε<sub>c</sub>*σ*T<sub>c1</sub><sup>4 </sup>=
151.63 + 0.6*0.5*5.6697x10<sup>-8</sup>* T<sub>c1</sub><sup>4</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
T<sub>c1</sub> = 267.88 °K<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
This equates to an average cloud altitude of 3120 m which is
reasonable.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<o:p> </o:p>Average cloud temperature after global warming:<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
239.22 = 153.2 + 0.6*0.5*5.6697x10<sup>-8</sup>* T<sub>c2</sub><sup>4</sup><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
T<sub>c2</sub> = 266.67 °K<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
The change in average cloud temperature is then<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
ΔT<sub>c</sub> = 266.67-267.88 = -1.21 °K<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
This equates to an increase in average cloud altitude, to
account for the entire increase in average global temperature of 0.74 °K, of
1.21/0.0065 = 185.6 m or, for half the increase, 0.37 °K in 92.8 m.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
The <i>effective</i>
emissivity of the surface might be less than 0.98. Also, some of the radiation
from the surface under the clouds makes it through the clouds. But the end
result must always be the same; over a long period of time the sum of all the
radiation leaving the planet must, on average, equal all of the radiation
received by the planet. And also, in any calculation, average cloud altitude
must be reasonable. <o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
If it is assumed that the effective emissivity of the
surface between clouds (to space) is 0.65 and the surface beneath clouds (to
space) is 0.22, the effect on average cloud altitude is exactly the same as
determined above (185.6 m).<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
In fact, any combination of effective surface emissivities
that passes the sanity test of energy balance and reasonable average cloud
altitude will come to the same result: About half of the surface-temperature
increase which has been called global warming can be accounted for by an
increase of average cloud altitude of only about 100 meters.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">Discussion and conclusions<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
Henrik <span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">Svensmark,
a Danish physicist, discovered a natural mechanism that causes a change in the
amount of low-level clouds: Sunspot number increase indicates solar magnetic
field increase which increases shielding of the earth from galactic cosmic
rays. Reduced cosmic rays results in fewer low altitude clouds. Fewer low-level
clouds results in both lower reflectance and higher average cloud altitude. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">An abstract of Svensmark’s
paper, which was published in 2000, is at </span><a href="http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v85/i23/p5004_1"><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"><span style="color: blue;">http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v85/i23/p5004_1</span></span></a><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">Because higher
altitude clouds are colder and radiate less energy to space, and fewer clouds
means lower reflectance, more sunspot activity causes global warming and less
sunspot activity causes global cooling. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN">That is, both
contribute to temperature change in the same direction so, when combined, they
could easily account for a substantial part of the temperature change that has
been called Global Warming.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">Note that a low
but wide solar cycle could have just as much influence as a tall but narrow one;
so the time-integral of sunspot numbers, which accounts for both magnitude and
time of a solar cycle, is the determining factor. Of course the time-integral
of sunspot numbers must be reduced by the time-integral of radiation from the
planet and a proxy factor must be applied.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
The rest of average global temperature change in the 20<sup>th</sup>
century is accounted for by natural net global ocean surface temperature
oscillation.<o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<o:p> </o:p><o:p></o:p>A simple equation, using accepted values for sunspot numbers
calculates the AGT trend since it has been accurately measured world wide
(about 1895) with an R<sup>2</sup> of 0.9 (0.98 for 5-yr smoothed measured temperatures). CO<sub>2</sub> has no significant influence on climate. The equation is
given at <a href="http://globalclimatedrivers2.blogspot.com/" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">http://globalclimatedrivers2.blogspot.com</a><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="MsoHyperlink"><span lang="EN"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
Without human caused Global Warming there can be no human
caused climate change.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
References<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Average cloud cover <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2012/05/01/science/earth/0501-clouds.html?_r=0"><span style="color: blue;">http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2012/05/01/science/earth/0501-clouds.html?_r=0</span></a><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">Goode, P.
R.; <i>et al.</i> (2001). "Earthshine Observations of the Earth's
Reflectance". <i>Geophysical Research Letters</i> <b>28</b> (9):
1671–1674. </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode"><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"><span style="color: blue;">Bibcode</span></span></a><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">:</span><a href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001GeoRL..28.1671G"><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"><span style="color: blue;">2001GeoRL..28.1671G</span></span></a><o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">T.R.
Shippert, S.A. Clough, P.D. Brown, W.L. Smith, R.O. Knuteson, and S.A.
Ackerman. "Spectral Cloud Emissivities from LBLRTM/AERI QME". <i>Proceedings
of the Eighth Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Science Team Meeting
March 1998 Tucson, Arizona</i>. </span><a href="http://www.arm.gov/publications/proceedings/conf08/extended_abs/shippert_tr.pdf"><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"><span style="color: blue;">http://www.arm.gov/publications/proceedings/conf08/extended_abs/shippert_tr.pdf</span></span></a><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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Dan Pangburnhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07898549182266117774noreply@blogger.com2